A 2017 meta-analysis suggested that the largest risk reduction for various health outcomes was observed at 3-4 cups of coffee per day10. Two 2019 meta-analyses suggested that consuming 2-4 cups a day of coffee was associated with reduced all-cause and cause-specific mortality, compared to consuming no coffee4,5. One suggested a 13% reduced risk of all-cause mortality when comparing those who did not, or rarely, consumed coffee with those who consume 3 cups per day4. This inverse association was maintained irrespective of age, overweight status, alcohol drinking, smoking status, and caffeine content of coffee5. Furthermore, a 2024 review of associations between regular and moderate coffee consumption, and biological mechanisms, which slow during the ageing process, suggested that coffee consumption was associated with an average increased healthspan of 1.8 years of lifetime11.
